Krathwohl’s gentle, enthusiastic, and encouraging manner of writing makes students believe that they can learn to use, master, and even enjoy the research procedures that are presented. This alone makes the text a valuable read for both students and faculty alike.” —C. S. Reichardt & J. M. Stedron, Contemporary Psychology
“This rivals Kerlinger’s Foundations of Behavior Research in its completeness, thoroughness, rigor, care for detail, and readability. In fact, it’s probably better overall.” — Patrick T. Terenzini, Penn State University
“This is the book I was looking for. It provides the knowledge base to understand research concepts. It is comprehensive and illustrates with powerful applications problems that students can learn and transfer to real life in their schools. Awesome organization in sections within each chapter! A+++!” — Maria Cardette-Elawar, Arizona State University West
“The text is complete and goes into details on the major subjects. I especially liked the qualitative section.” — James Watson, Columbia International University
“This is, I believe, the best comprehensive textbook for an introductory graduate-level course in research methods.” — Alan Davis, University of Colorado
“Krathwohl's Methods of Educational and Social Science Research amounts to a genuine tour de force. It succeeds, admirably, in accomplishing precisely what the author set out to do: to delineate an ‘integrating framework’ for understanding and conducting social science research.” — Christopher J. Lucas, University of Arkansas
“A well-documented, detailed, and comprehensive text. Research scholars will certainly find this a most useful text.” — Vic Madho, College of St. Vincent
“It’s an excellent book. I’ve used it in class the past two years and found it to be comprehensive, clear, and concise. Students value it.” — John Pavlik, Rutgers University
755 pages, $99.95 list
1-57766-576-7
978-1-57766-576-2
© 2009
paperback
Instructor's Manual and Test Bank available
eBook availability
Methods of Educational and Social Science Research
The Logic of Methods
Third Edition
As the new subtitle indicates, the book emphasizes the logic of methods to provide the student a solid basis for future methodology changes, enhancing the integrated approach of the previous edition. Among the author’s many goals are for users to: understand research’s contribution to knowledge building as a social process through which findings become accepted as knowledge; acquire the background to read, analyze, and understand research using a variety of approaches as well as the hallmarks necessary to evaluate each method; and realize that the responsibility for ethical research is fundamentally theirs and that value choices are involved, beginning with the choice of research problem.
Updates to the new edition include an extensive example of the use of the computer in the literature search and a new chapter on the reflective researcher. The expanded treatment of qualitative research includes the pros and cons of using software in qualitative analysis. Conceptual analysis, an important concept missing from the second edition, has returned by request because of its widely employed logic in both qualitative and quantitative methods.
The author has acknowledged the troublesome nature of the concepts internal validity and external validity and has more clearly defined these important foundational concepts as Internal Integrity and External Generality. Useful tools to facilitate learning include additional reading lists, important terms and concepts, tips on effective research methods and hallmarks of methods, application problems and exercises, a glossary, and an appendix on writing a research proposal.
Updates to the new edition include an extensive example of the use of the computer in the literature search and a new chapter on the reflective researcher. The expanded treatment of qualitative research includes the pros and cons of using software in qualitative analysis. Conceptual analysis, an important concept missing from the second edition, has returned by request because of its widely employed logic in both qualitative and quantitative methods.
The author has acknowledged the troublesome nature of the concepts internal validity and external validity and has more clearly defined these important foundational concepts as Internal Integrity and External Generality. Useful tools to facilitate learning include additional reading lists, important terms and concepts, tips on effective research methods and hallmarks of methods, application problems and exercises, a glossary, and an appendix on writing a research proposal.
Reactions
Section I: THE NATURE OF RESEARCH
1. Two Research Approaches from a Continuum of Approaches
Social and Behavioral Science: Important but Historically Young / Two Illustrative Studies / Different Views of a Model of Social and Behavioral Science / Summary
2. The Variety of Research Methods
Introduction / Choosing a Research Method / A Continuum of Research Approaches / The Nature of Social Science Knowledge: An Additional Factor / Understanding Both Approaches / Summary
3. From Findings to Knowledge
Introduction / The Journey from Findings to Knowledge / Is Knowledge the Same as Truth? / Knowing Judgments in Everyday Life / Different Sources of Knowledge / The Norms of Knowledge Production / Ethics / Summary
4. The Research Chain of Reasoning
Introduction / Links in the Chain / The Chain of Reasoning in Preplanned Studies / The Chain of Reasoning in Emergent Studies / Using the Chain of Reasoning in Study Design / Four Useful Characteristics of the Chain Analogy / Summary
Section II: FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH SKILLS
5. Creating Research Problems
Introduction / The Problem of the Problem / Problem Finding and Research Method / Criteria of a Good Problem / Success-Enhancing Problem-Finding Behaviors / Summary / Chapter Addendum: Pattern Notes
6. Finding Links to Past Research: The Literature Search and Literature Review
How to Read This Chapter / Introduction / The Functions of the Literature Search / The Dissertation's Literature Review: Two Points of View / The Literature Search in Emergent Studies / Entry Points for Different Stages of Problem Development / Organizing the Search / Types of Information Sources / Types of Indexes / A Literature Search Example (Including Tips on Computer Use)
Section III: FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH CONCEPTS
7. Causal Inference and Internal Integrity
Introduction / Association and Causality / Complexities in the Concept of Cause / Complexities in Our Conception of Social Science / Evidence of Causation / Internal Integrity / Internal Integrity and the Chain of Reasoning / Internal Integrity and External Generality as Uncertainty Reduction / Summary / Chapter Addendum: Internal Integrity and Internal Validity
8. Sampling, Representation, and External Generality
Introduction / Principles of Sampling / Probability and Nonprobability Sampling / Probability Sampling Procedures / Nonprobability Sampling / External Generality / Summary
9. Optimizing Trade-Offs within Limits
Introduction / Why Settle for Optimization? / Audience Credibility / Relative Weighting of Internal Integrity and External Generality / Resource Allocation / Limits and Constraints / Summary
10. Ethical Standards and Legal Constraints
Introduction / Legal and Institutional Protection of Participants / Informed Consent / Codes of Ethics from Professional Associations / Collaboration with Research Participants / Common Ethical Concerns / Researcher Responsibility to the Institutional Review Board / Summary
11. Showing Relationships through Design: Design's Logic
Introduction / Designing Studies to Facilitate the Inference of Causation / Strengthening Mill's Methods / Elimination of Rival Explanations / Summary
Section IV: THE CONTINUUM OF RESEARCH METHODS: Qualitative Side
12. Qualitative Research Methods
Introduction / Advantages of Qualitative Procedures / The Variety of Qualitative Approaches / Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research / Locating and Developing a Qualitative Focus / Ways of Generating Qualitative Data / Overview of the Qualitative Process / Summary
13. Fieldwork and Observation
Introduction / Ways of Observing / Initial Steps in Observation / Data Gathering / Fieldnotes and Annotations / Analysis in the Context of Data Gathering / Data Validity / Ethics / Leaving the Field / Summary
14. Interviewing
Introduction / Structuring Interviewer and Respondent Roles / Electronic Interviewing / Sampling Interviewees / Summary
15. Qualitative Data Analysis
Introduction / Techniques to Identify Codes / Coding on Paper / Coding on Computers / Steps in Coding and Analysis / Computer Software for Qualitative Data Analysis / Suggested Starting Points for Coding / Examples of Coding and Inference / Facilitating Analysis with Matrices / Factors that Potentially Bias Analysis / Summary
16. Quality Considerations, Conclusions, and Reporting in Qualitative Research
Introduction / An Operational Approach to Defining Quality / A Conceptual Approach to Defining Quality / Credibility/Internal Integrity in Qualitative Research / Transferability/External Generality in Qualitative Research / Social Consequences—An Additional Criterion? / Writing the Report / Summary
Section V: THE CONTINUUM OF RESEARCH METHODS: Quantitative Side
17. The Numeric Description of Data: Descriptive Statistics
Introduction / Categories of Numeric Information / Representations of Groups of Numbers (Data Sets) / Bringing Order to the Data / Shapes of Distributions / Descriptive Statistics / Variability / Measures of Relationships / Correlation and Causation / Appropriate Interpretation of Statistics / Exploring with Statistics / Summary
18. Measurement, Testing, and Observation
Introduction / Measurement—A Sampling Process / Evidence of Validity / Reliability of Measures / Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests / Improving Validity and/or Reliability through Item Analysis / Objectivity of Measures / Tailored and Adaptive Testing / Locating Existing Measures / Measurement Trade-Offs / Summary / Chapter Addendum: The Standard Error of Measurement
19. The Logic of Inferential Statistics
Introduction / The Logic of Inference / Estimation / The Logic of Hypothesis Testing / Statistical Sensitivity and Statistical Power / The Level of Significance to Report / Statistical and Practical Significance / Proof of a Proposition versus Its Escaping Disconfirmation / Summary
20. Common Inferential Statistics and Examples
Introduction / Seeking Non-Chance Differences among Means / Showing That Two Statistics Are the Same / The Inflation of Probabilities Problem / Seeking Non-Chance Differences between Frequencies / Assumptions of Parametric and Nonparametric Tests / Computerized Statistical Programs / Trends in Inferential Statistics / Summary
21. Experimentation and Experimental Design
Introduction / The Art of Experimental Design / The Treatment / Tightly Linking Treatment to Effect / Control Methods to Eliminate Plausible Rival Explanations / Common Rival Explanations Affecting Internal Integrity and/or External Generality / Rival Explanations Affecting Generality / Unique Rival Explanations / Sample Simple Experimental Designs / Designs with More Complexity / The Future of Design / Summary
22. Syntheses of Findings—Meta-Analysis
Introduction / Narrative Literature Summaries / Meta-Analysis / Evidence-Based Practice Movements / Judgments Required by Meta-Analyses / Best-Evidence Synthesis / Summary
Section VI: THE CONTINUUM OF RESEARCH METHODS: The Qualitative/Quantitative Middle
23. Evaluation Studies and Action Research
Introduction / Examples of Evaluation / Three Basic Questions / The Role of the Evaluation / How the Goals of the Evaluation Are Determined / The Role of the Evaluator / Two More Evaluation Examples / Other Characteristics of Evaluations / Evaluation Standards: Protection for Evaluators and Clients / Action Research / Summary
24. Survey Research and Questionnaires
Introduction / The Steps in the Survey Process / Major Decisions that Shape the Survey / The Survey Instrument / Face-to-Face Interviews / Computer-Assisted Interviewing / Mail Surveys / E-Mail and Internet Surveys / Pilot Testing / Coding and Analysis of Survey Data / Problems Affecting Survey Results / Sources of Help / Summary
25. Historical Research
Introduction / Internal Integrity and the Inference of Causation / Key Criteria of Internal Integrity for Historical Studies / Summary
26. Optimizing Research Effectiveness by Using Mixed Methods
Introduction / Ways in Which Mixed Methods Enhance Research / The Use of Mixed-Method Designs / The Philosophical Problems of Mixed-Method Approaches / Summary
Section VII: THE LARGER CONTEXT OF RESEARCH
27. The Reflective Researcher
Introduction / Intuitive Knowing in Action / Perceptions Shape How We Think about Things / Joining the Strands of Thought / Examples of Questions to Reflect On / Examples from Chapter 1 / Reflection for All Studies?
28. The Macrosystem of Educational and Social Science Research
Introduction / Does Social Science Function as Intended at the Individual Level? / Does Science Function as Intended at the Peer Level? / The Potential of the Internet / Does Science Function as Intended at the Societal Level? / What Are We to Think, Then, of Social Science Research?
Appendix A: Writing a Research Proposal
Appendix B: Greater Understanding of the Frontispiece through Alternative Graphics
Glossary
1. Two Research Approaches from a Continuum of Approaches
Social and Behavioral Science: Important but Historically Young / Two Illustrative Studies / Different Views of a Model of Social and Behavioral Science / Summary
2. The Variety of Research Methods
Introduction / Choosing a Research Method / A Continuum of Research Approaches / The Nature of Social Science Knowledge: An Additional Factor / Understanding Both Approaches / Summary
3. From Findings to Knowledge
Introduction / The Journey from Findings to Knowledge / Is Knowledge the Same as Truth? / Knowing Judgments in Everyday Life / Different Sources of Knowledge / The Norms of Knowledge Production / Ethics / Summary
4. The Research Chain of Reasoning
Introduction / Links in the Chain / The Chain of Reasoning in Preplanned Studies / The Chain of Reasoning in Emergent Studies / Using the Chain of Reasoning in Study Design / Four Useful Characteristics of the Chain Analogy / Summary
Section II: FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH SKILLS
5. Creating Research Problems
Introduction / The Problem of the Problem / Problem Finding and Research Method / Criteria of a Good Problem / Success-Enhancing Problem-Finding Behaviors / Summary / Chapter Addendum: Pattern Notes
6. Finding Links to Past Research: The Literature Search and Literature Review
How to Read This Chapter / Introduction / The Functions of the Literature Search / The Dissertation's Literature Review: Two Points of View / The Literature Search in Emergent Studies / Entry Points for Different Stages of Problem Development / Organizing the Search / Types of Information Sources / Types of Indexes / A Literature Search Example (Including Tips on Computer Use)
Section III: FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH CONCEPTS
7. Causal Inference and Internal Integrity
Introduction / Association and Causality / Complexities in the Concept of Cause / Complexities in Our Conception of Social Science / Evidence of Causation / Internal Integrity / Internal Integrity and the Chain of Reasoning / Internal Integrity and External Generality as Uncertainty Reduction / Summary / Chapter Addendum: Internal Integrity and Internal Validity
8. Sampling, Representation, and External Generality
Introduction / Principles of Sampling / Probability and Nonprobability Sampling / Probability Sampling Procedures / Nonprobability Sampling / External Generality / Summary
9. Optimizing Trade-Offs within Limits
Introduction / Why Settle for Optimization? / Audience Credibility / Relative Weighting of Internal Integrity and External Generality / Resource Allocation / Limits and Constraints / Summary
10. Ethical Standards and Legal Constraints
Introduction / Legal and Institutional Protection of Participants / Informed Consent / Codes of Ethics from Professional Associations / Collaboration with Research Participants / Common Ethical Concerns / Researcher Responsibility to the Institutional Review Board / Summary
11. Showing Relationships through Design: Design's Logic
Introduction / Designing Studies to Facilitate the Inference of Causation / Strengthening Mill's Methods / Elimination of Rival Explanations / Summary
Section IV: THE CONTINUUM OF RESEARCH METHODS: Qualitative Side
12. Qualitative Research Methods
Introduction / Advantages of Qualitative Procedures / The Variety of Qualitative Approaches / Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Research / Locating and Developing a Qualitative Focus / Ways of Generating Qualitative Data / Overview of the Qualitative Process / Summary
13. Fieldwork and Observation
Introduction / Ways of Observing / Initial Steps in Observation / Data Gathering / Fieldnotes and Annotations / Analysis in the Context of Data Gathering / Data Validity / Ethics / Leaving the Field / Summary
14. Interviewing
Introduction / Structuring Interviewer and Respondent Roles / Electronic Interviewing / Sampling Interviewees / Summary
15. Qualitative Data Analysis
Introduction / Techniques to Identify Codes / Coding on Paper / Coding on Computers / Steps in Coding and Analysis / Computer Software for Qualitative Data Analysis / Suggested Starting Points for Coding / Examples of Coding and Inference / Facilitating Analysis with Matrices / Factors that Potentially Bias Analysis / Summary
16. Quality Considerations, Conclusions, and Reporting in Qualitative Research
Introduction / An Operational Approach to Defining Quality / A Conceptual Approach to Defining Quality / Credibility/Internal Integrity in Qualitative Research / Transferability/External Generality in Qualitative Research / Social Consequences—An Additional Criterion? / Writing the Report / Summary
Section V: THE CONTINUUM OF RESEARCH METHODS: Quantitative Side
17. The Numeric Description of Data: Descriptive Statistics
Introduction / Categories of Numeric Information / Representations of Groups of Numbers (Data Sets) / Bringing Order to the Data / Shapes of Distributions / Descriptive Statistics / Variability / Measures of Relationships / Correlation and Causation / Appropriate Interpretation of Statistics / Exploring with Statistics / Summary
18. Measurement, Testing, and Observation
Introduction / Measurement—A Sampling Process / Evidence of Validity / Reliability of Measures / Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests / Improving Validity and/or Reliability through Item Analysis / Objectivity of Measures / Tailored and Adaptive Testing / Locating Existing Measures / Measurement Trade-Offs / Summary / Chapter Addendum: The Standard Error of Measurement
19. The Logic of Inferential Statistics
Introduction / The Logic of Inference / Estimation / The Logic of Hypothesis Testing / Statistical Sensitivity and Statistical Power / The Level of Significance to Report / Statistical and Practical Significance / Proof of a Proposition versus Its Escaping Disconfirmation / Summary
20. Common Inferential Statistics and Examples
Introduction / Seeking Non-Chance Differences among Means / Showing That Two Statistics Are the Same / The Inflation of Probabilities Problem / Seeking Non-Chance Differences between Frequencies / Assumptions of Parametric and Nonparametric Tests / Computerized Statistical Programs / Trends in Inferential Statistics / Summary
21. Experimentation and Experimental Design
Introduction / The Art of Experimental Design / The Treatment / Tightly Linking Treatment to Effect / Control Methods to Eliminate Plausible Rival Explanations / Common Rival Explanations Affecting Internal Integrity and/or External Generality / Rival Explanations Affecting Generality / Unique Rival Explanations / Sample Simple Experimental Designs / Designs with More Complexity / The Future of Design / Summary
22. Syntheses of Findings—Meta-Analysis
Introduction / Narrative Literature Summaries / Meta-Analysis / Evidence-Based Practice Movements / Judgments Required by Meta-Analyses / Best-Evidence Synthesis / Summary
Section VI: THE CONTINUUM OF RESEARCH METHODS: The Qualitative/Quantitative Middle
23. Evaluation Studies and Action Research
Introduction / Examples of Evaluation / Three Basic Questions / The Role of the Evaluation / How the Goals of the Evaluation Are Determined / The Role of the Evaluator / Two More Evaluation Examples / Other Characteristics of Evaluations / Evaluation Standards: Protection for Evaluators and Clients / Action Research / Summary
24. Survey Research and Questionnaires
Introduction / The Steps in the Survey Process / Major Decisions that Shape the Survey / The Survey Instrument / Face-to-Face Interviews / Computer-Assisted Interviewing / Mail Surveys / E-Mail and Internet Surveys / Pilot Testing / Coding and Analysis of Survey Data / Problems Affecting Survey Results / Sources of Help / Summary
25. Historical Research
Introduction / Internal Integrity and the Inference of Causation / Key Criteria of Internal Integrity for Historical Studies / Summary
26. Optimizing Research Effectiveness by Using Mixed Methods
Introduction / Ways in Which Mixed Methods Enhance Research / The Use of Mixed-Method Designs / The Philosophical Problems of Mixed-Method Approaches / Summary
Section VII: THE LARGER CONTEXT OF RESEARCH
27. The Reflective Researcher
Introduction / Intuitive Knowing in Action / Perceptions Shape How We Think about Things / Joining the Strands of Thought / Examples of Questions to Reflect On / Examples from Chapter 1 / Reflection for All Studies?
28. The Macrosystem of Educational and Social Science Research
Introduction / Does Social Science Function as Intended at the Individual Level? / Does Science Function as Intended at the Peer Level? / The Potential of the Internet / Does Science Function as Intended at the Societal Level? / What Are We to Think, Then, of Social Science Research?
Appendix A: Writing a Research Proposal
Appendix B: Greater Understanding of the Frontispiece through Alternative Graphics
Glossary